Europe (East)

Here is the second page of Europe, the East :
Austria, Russia, Ukraine, Bulgaria, Macedonia, Romania, Moldova and Croatia/Serbia.

Go to Europe West for the western side : Spain, Portugal, Canary islands, Madeira, Azores, Cape Verde, Ireland Go to Europe South for the south side : Albania, Bosnia, Greece, Italy, Sardinia, Corsica

The concert zither is a typical instrument of the mountainous area of central Europe, so Austria and surroundings. Although zithers in general would not be included in this website, this one is different, as there is a fingerboard with frets to play the melody.

The concert zither is basically a wooden box (although in a nice rounded shape), with on one side (like a kind of keyboard) 5 strings over a fretboard with metal frets. Next to the fretboard are about 27 more strings, which are played open. They are arranged in 7 chords of 4 strings each, which for orientation are separated by strings in a different colour. The strings over the fretboard are tuned with guitar-like tuning machines; to tune the rest you need a tuning key. The two top strings are in the same pitch, but apparently not played together.

To play the zither you put it in front of you on a table with the fretboard towards you. The right hand picks with a metal thumbpick the melody strings, and with the index or ring finger you strum the chord strings, just aiming for the right chord group. The left hand pushes down the strings on the fretboard. As the highest string is nearest the player, the playing is just the other way around from playing guitar.

Usually just folk music is played on it, and due to the soft sound - mainly only at home.

For the history of the concert zither see Zitherorchester (in German).

The schrammel gitarre is a special harp guitar used in so called "schrammel quartets" in Wien (Vienna), with violin, viola and clarinet to play semi-classical music in restaurants. It is called after the two brothers Schrammel who made this type of music popular in the 19th century. The schrammel guitar (also called kontra-gitarre) provides the harmony and the basses for the music. Nowadays often only a harmonica and schrammel gitarre are used.

The schrammel guitar can have many shapes, but basically it is a large spanish guitar (with 6 nylon strings), with an extra unfretted neck, with 3 to 9 extra bass strings, which are only played open. The peghead can be different (some look like Fender guitars), with some having a separate nut for each string, giving extra string length. To withstand the enormous pull of the strings on the body, there is a steel pin inside. To get some orientation in the bundle of bass strings, some are coloured red.

Tuning is like a normal guitar, with the bass strings often in decending order.

Playing is like a normal classical guitar, mainly in chords, with the thumb picking the occasional bass string (like on the baroque lute).

For a look at very many types of schrammel gitarre see Harpguitars.net - it will be under form 2c; don't drown in all the hundreds of other types !

The most famous Russian instrument is the triangle shaped balalaika. The shape makes it difficult to hold. It comes in several sizes, from the soprano ("primo"), alto and tenor, to the large bass balalaika in big balalaika orchestras, playing (fast) folk melodies.

The balalaika is made from ribs joined together (a bit halfround) with the shape forming a triangle at the front. It has a narrow neck with a flat tuning head, with 3 tuning machines from the back. The body has a small round soundhole, and the front is either painted with some folk like decoration, or (the more professional ones) has inlayed woods in the top and lower corners.

Three strings run over a loose wooden bridge to pins at the edge of the body.

There are two different kinds of balalaika : the academic one and the folk one.
Difference :
Academic : Tuning (of a primo) is e' e' a'. The first string is made of steel, the two others made of nylon. There is more separation between the first and second string. The instrument comes in all different sizes.
Folk : Tuning could be c' e' g', or g b d' . All strings are usually made of metal.

Playing the balalaika is either with a plectrum or strumming with the fingers. Well known are the repeated mandolin-like tremelos. Usually the two lower strings are fingered with the thumb and the melody played only on the first string.

The domra is another Russian instrument, which comes in many sizes (soprano to bass), for use in balalaika- or special domra orchestras. It also comes in two different types : one with 3 strings and tuned like a balalaika (mainly used in Russia), and one with 4 strings, tuned like a mandolin (mainly used in Ukraine, see under).

Don't confuse the name with the dombra, which is a longneck lute from Kazakhstan (see Central Asia), or the dumbyra of the Bashkir (see under).

The domra is made with ribs glued together in the shape of half a football. The front is almost a circle, with over the top half usually some extra layer as scratchplate. This is often made of black painted wood (sometimes with white dots around the edge). The small round soundhole has usually a rosette in a flowershape.

The narrow neck has a fretboard with metal frets. The 3-string domra has a flat tuning head, with a scroll to the right side and with the 3 tuning machines from behind on the left side. The metal strings run over a loose wooden bridge to pins at the edge of the body.

Tuning of the 3-string domra is often e' a' d", or like a balalaika : e' e' a'.

Playing is with a plectrum or strumming with the fingers, like the balalaika.

For more information see barynya.

The native Russian guitar of the early 19th century was a 7-string instrument with an open G-major tuning and metal strings.
This Russian guitar (also known in Russian as : semistrunnaya gitara, or even semistrunka) was modeled on the West-European guitars, and mainly on the Austrian type (Stauffer model) - with the neck not glued to the body, but fixed with a bolt, which made the neck-angle adjustable and with the fingerboard not touching the soundboard. The friction pegs were often of a special type that could be fixed to avoid slipping.

All 7 strings can be fretted, so it does not count as a harp guitar. Some regard this instrument as a guitar-shaped cittern (due to the open tuning and the metal strings).

After a visit by Segovia to Russia, the 6-string (spanish) guitar soon replaced the Russian guitar, although the instrument remained popular with amateurs as it was easy to play basic chords.

Nowadays the Russian guitar with 7 strings is still available, made by both Russian and Romanian factories, often using modern versions of the spanish guitar. Note that the fingerboard often has the same width as on a normal guitar, so the seven strings are closer together. The steel strings are tuned : D G B d g b d'. Mr. Oleg Timofeyev is trying to revive this instrument and has recorded some CD's with the original music. The amount of old repertoire is vast, but not readily available. See for more information Earlyromanticguitar.com. left : picture from CD Russian Guitar by Timofeyev

Note that in Brazil is also a type of 7-string guitar, called violão de sete cordas (see South America).

The Bashkir people, who live in and around the Ural mountains, use a long-neck lute with 3 strings, called dumbyra (or dombyra or dombra). This is a different instrument from the 2-string dombra used in Kazakhan (see Central Asia).

The body of a dumbyra of the Bashkir is usually made with ribs glued together in a pear shape (like the Kazakh dombra). However some are made with flat sides and an only slightly rounded back.
The thin wooden front has a small soundhole, and often some decoration like a (raised) scratchplate near the top, or inlay or painting around the bottom edge.

The slightly raised fingerboard has metal frets in a western scale.
The shape of the flat tuning head is different between different makers, but usually vaguely looks like the shape of a horse head. It has 3 machine tuners from the back, on the left side.

The 3 nylon strings run over a large loose bridge to 3 small pegs at the end of the body.
Tuning could be : e a e'.

Playing is with a plectrum or strumming with the fingers, a bit like the balalaika. Often it is played solo classical style, with piano accompaniment.

The body of this modern kobza is more or less made like the bandura. It is carved from solid wood, with a slightly rounded back, and a flat soundboard on top. The shape is usually a nearly symmetrical oval, with often a star-like soundhole. The neck is short and has a fretless fingerboard stretching over the soundboard.

The tuning head is similar to a violin : bended to the back, ending in a decorative curl to the front. There are 6 friction tuning pegs, three on each side of the head.

To the right (the treble side) of the neck are 6 or 7 harp-like strings, fitted to the edge of the soundboard, which can be tuned with frictions pegs (from behind).
The 6 main strings and harp-like strings run over a large loose wooden bridge to a metal (or leather) string-fastener at the edge of the body. All strings are equally spaced on the bridge.

The tuning is usually : G c d g a d' / g' a' b' c" (c#") d" e".

The playing of this modern kobza is with the right hand plucking (the fingers for the harp strings, and the thumb for the bass strings). The left hand fingers only the bass strings on the fretless neck. Even chords can be played. This instrument is now popular again with groups playing traditional folk music.

Note that there exists another kobza instrument in Romania/Hungary, which is a kind of lute (see under : Romania).

Besides the above mentioned unfretted kobza there are also several types of "fretted kobza" in Ukraine. These were designed in the 1970's, to revive an ancient round instrument shown in old pictures (played by Cossacks), and which would also have been called kobza. The body of this kobza with frets is made like a guitar (or a large flat-back mandolin). The body is either oval shaped or pear shaped. The peghead (with tuning machines) usually ends in a decorative curl to the front.

There are basically two versions : the mandolin-type and the guitar-type.
The mandolin-type kobza has 4 strings, and is tuned like a mandolin. This type is used in orchestras (so it is often called "orchestra kobza") and comes in different sizes : prima, alto, tenor, bass and even contra-bass. The instrument looks quite similar to the Russian domra.
The guitar-type kobza (often called "accompaniment kobza") can have 4, 6, 7 or even 12 (6x2) strings, and will be tuned like our bass guitar, like our normal guitar, like the 7-string Russian guitar, or like our normal 12-string guitar.

Playing this fretted type of kobza is usually with a plectrum.

mandolin-type kobza pear shaped body, with loose bridge and leather string fastener (picture from photo)
mandolin-type kobza oval shaped body, bridge with bridge pins (picture from zap)
guitar-type kobza with guitar-type bridge (picture from sale on eBay)

The domra of Ukraine looks similar to the domra from Russia (see above), but it has 4 strings and is tuned like a mandolin.

Don't confuse the name with the dombra, which is a longneck lute from Kazakhstan (see Central Asia), or the dumbyra of the Bashkir (see above).

The domra is made with ribs glued together in the shape of half a football. The front is almost a circle, with the top half usually some overlay as scratchplate made of black painted wood (sometimes with white dots around the edge). The small round soundhole has usually a rosette in a flowershape.

The narrow neck has a fretboard with metal frets. The tuning head of the 4-string domra has an open slotted peghead with an end scroll to the front. It has 4 tuning machines, two on each side.

The 4 metal strings run over a loose wooden bridge to pins at the edge of the body. Tuning is always like a mandolin : g d' a' e''.

Playing is usually with a plectrum, or strumming with the fingers, like the balalaika.

For more information see barynya.

In Romania exists an old lute-like instrument, which is called cobza (or kobsa, or kobza). In Hungary a similar instrument is called koboz (or coboz or kobuz).

The body of the cobza is made from 5 wide ribs, glued together. It has a long teardrop shaped front, with an inlayed (square) scratchplate just above the bridge, and some star-like slits as soundholes (some have also an extra, small triangular soundhole). The bottom edge of the front of the body is protected with a strip of leather.

The very short neck has no frets, and the fingerboard is flush with the front. The open pegbox joins the neck at an almost straight angle. The wooden friction tuning pegs are 4 on each side. Some cobza nowadays have tuning machines.
The 4 double metal (or gut) strings spread out to the bridge and run first over a small strip of wood (a loose bridge) and are tied to the rather high glued-on bridge.
The tuning is usually : d'd a'a d'd' g'g', sometimes omitting the octaves.

The playing is with a plectrum or strumming with the fingers, both to accompany or to play solos.

Although almost forgotten this lute is now popular again with groups playing traditional folk music. In the South (Oltenia and Muntenia) they would play more in single line and in Moldova more in full chords.

During the Sovjet period the traditional cobza was altered and fitted with a mandolin-like neck, with frets. This type of instrument (also called cobza) is still popular in Moldova (see under).

Note: There existed also another instrument with the name kobza in Ukraine, which is often a kind of harp/zither (like the bandura), see under miscellaneous ("not included"). However sometimes the neck is fingered : see Ukraine (earlier on this page).

The example instrument is made in the Hora factory of Szaszrégeni (Reghin, Romania).

This instrument is in fact a normal guitar but slightly altered, to use it for a special way of playing - so not really a special instrument.

Zongora is the name given to the guitar in some villages in northern Transylvania (Maramures, Oas). Béla Bartók discovered a century ago the zongora in Maramures and noted that it had only two strings tuned at a perfect fifth apart (D - A). Since then, a number of strings have been added to the guitar-zongora which now has four (or five), tuned in a major scale (D - F# - A or A - C# - E). This zongora also became the accompanying instrument in neighbouring Oas.

Zongora musicians buy their (cheap) instrument in stores, replace some of the (steel) strings and put them close together in the middle of the neck.

The zongora is played by just rhythmic strumming the strings with a plectrum. The rhythm is dictated by the melody. To change the chord from time to time the index finger of the left hand is moved up and down the neck, pressing all the strings down at the same time (like a steel on a dobro). Modern players will also use more complex chords.

The zongora is often played in an unusual vertical position, with the side of the guitar pressed against the players' left side and the face of the instrument turned slightly towards the right. Zongora players are often singers as well and perform folk songs with a group that usually includes a fiddle and a drum.

The unfretted Romanian cobza/koboz that was in use for folk music, was during the Sovjet period altered and fixed with a fretted neck, so it was easier to write composed music for it. This type of cobza is now mainly used in Moldova, where it is still known under the name cobza.

The body of this cobza is made from 5 or 7 wide ribs, glued together. It has a long teardrop shaped front with a flat end, and often some star-like slits as soundholes (some cobzas also have an extra, small triangular soundhole). Some have an inlayed or veneered scratchplate, just above the bridge.

The neck is separate, with the fingerboard raised above the front. It has metal frets. The open pegbox joins the neck at about 45 degrees angle to the back. It has tuning machines, 4 on each side.

The 4 double metal strings run first over a separate large loose bridge, and are then fixed to a guitar-like bridge, glued to the front.
The tuning is usually like a mandolin : gg d'd' a'a' e"e"

Playing this cobza is with a plectrum, to play solos or accompany songs.

tamburas

East Europe has quite a few long neck lutes; a lot of them called tambura (or tamboura). Originally they are based on instruments like the Turkish saz, or the Albanian cifteli or the sargija (see for those : Europe South). The body used to be pear-shaped, but slowly the guitar-shape is getting more popular.

They exist in several versions :
- 2 courses tuned with the Farkaš system (both courses the same pitch)
- 3 courses tuned with the Jancovic system
- 4 courses tuned with the Srijemski system

Some tamburas are played as the only plucked instrument in a group (like in Bulgaria and Macedonia), but in Serbia and Croatia they have groups (tamburitza) playing solely plucked instruments - of different sizes. The different instruments are from the smallest to the biggest : bisernica, brac, bugarija, celo and berde. Some groups have just one of each, others are entire orchestras with at least 3 of each, and sometimes each one with a different size and tuning.

Tamburas made with frets in the so-called "Farkaš system" are now rare, hardly anybody knows how to play them properly. They were used in tamburitza groups, so they came in all sizes.

tambura Farkaš (guitar-shape) example : bought via eBay, 2014 L=590 B=160 H=40mm scale 365mm (the stringholder is not original)

The body of this tambura is carved from one piece of wood to a quite thin shell. Originally the body had a teardrop shape, but later they were also shaped like a small guitar (still carved from one piece of wood) . The top half of the pine front (and often a small bit on the lower end) is made from dark coloured wood, with a patterned edge.The fingerboard is just a dark veneer.

The long neck has metal frets, in the Farkaš system : only the first 5 frets are full size. From then there are two rows of half frets : on the right side a diatonic row and on the left all the frets in between, so together they form a chromatic range.

The tuning head is flat with a sideways curl to the right. The tuning machines are of the tamburitza type (see under Croatia), with a curly metal coverplate on the front (which has some resemblance with the Stauffer guitar - see guitars1). All four metal strings (in two double courses) are tuned the same. They run over a small loose bridge to two metal pins at the bottom of the body.

Playing is with the fingers strumming both strings, to accompany folk singing or other stringed instruments.

The Bulgarian tambura (or tamboura) is made in two styles : with two double strings or with four double strings.

The body of this tambura is made from a hollowed out piece of (maple) wood in teardrop shape; the body is quite shallow. The pine soundboard is made of one piece, and slightly vaulted. It has a round soundhole.

The long neck with tuning head is separate, with a thick rounded fingerboard which is raised over the soundboard, and has metal frets. The neck ends in a flat peghead, with 2x2 or 2x4 tuning machines from the back. The instrument is varnished with often decoration around the edge of the body and on the bridge.

The 4 or 8 metal strings run over a very wide loose bridge to a metal tailpiece at end of the body.

The tuning of a 4 course tambura is guitar-like, with no octave strings. Tuning is usually : dd gg bb e'e'.
A two course tambura could be tuned with all strings the same, or tuned something like : aa e'e'.

The instrument is quite heavy, and sounds loud.

This tambura is played with a plectrum, and used to accompany (folk) singing, or to play solo music.

The tambura (or tamboura) made in Macedonia looks similar to the tambura of Bulgaria, but also a bit like a Greek bouzouki (see Europe south).

The body of this tambura (and the beginning of the neck) is carved from one piece of wood, but is deeper than the Bulgarian tambura. The top half of the pine front is made from dark coloured wood, with a wavy border. It has a round soundhole. The entire instrument is varnished.

The neck and tuninghead are made from one piece of wood. The fingerboard is made of different wood, and level with the soundboard. It has metal frets. The tuning head is flat, with tuning machines from behind - two on each side.

The 4 metal strings (in two double courses) run over a loose wooden bridge to a mandolin-like stringholder at the edge of the body. Tuning could be : dd aa.

Playing is with a plectrum, to accompany folk singing or other instruments.

On the Balkan (in Croatia, Serbia, Slovenia) they still play a small saz-like instrument, which is called in some areas tambura samica and in others (like Lika in Serbia) it is known as dangubica. Also the name tambura kuterevka is used.

The pear-shaped body is carved from one piece of wood. The back is flat. The top end of the front (and sometimes also a bit of the lower end) is usually inlayed with a darker coloured wood (or just varnished in a darker colour). The frets are made of U-shaped metal and in a kind of diatonic scale inlayed in the neck (there is no fingerboard). It has a small round soundhole.

The tuninghead is often in a sideways curl (made famous by Mr. Stauffer and Mr. Fender). It may have 4 separate tuning machines from the back, or more traditional : 4 wooden pegs from the front, paired and standing a bit sideways. The strings run over a small loose wooden bridge on the front to 4 screws at the edge of the body.

The larger instruments may have two double metal strings, the smaller dangubica has often four single strings.
For the tuning it does not matter : bb e'e', or : a a d' d', or something similar.

Playing is usually with the finger(s), strumming all strings together and mainly fingering only the first string(s).
The instrument with 4 single strings is more twangy, because than you hear three free drone strings. The instrument is usually played solo in folk music, not as part of an orchestra.

The smallest tamburitza instrument is the bisernica (or prim). It plays the main melody. Although the body shape can be different, usually is roundish.

The body of the bisernica is carved from one piece of wood, with a flat back. The top half of the pine front is of different wood, and soundholes are just lots of small holes as decoration. The neck is separate, with the fingerboard flush with the front. It has metal frets.

The tuning head is often flat and mandolin-like, but could also have a sideways curl (like Fender) with metal encased tuning machines. The 3 or 4 double courses of metal strings run over a loose wooden bridge to pins at the edge of the body.

The tuning would be : e a d' g'g'.

Playing is with a plectrum, with very fast passages.

from left : celo, bugarija, brac, brac in front : two bisernica

The brac is the second smallest instrument in the tamburitza orchestra, playing second melody lines. The brac (or Brach or bas-prim) is often guitar-shaped, but could also be roundish like the bisernica.

The body of the brac is made like a guitar, with the top half (or an area around the round sound hole) in a different wood. The neck usually ends in a flat tuning head with a side ways scroll (like Fender guitars), and metal encased tuning machines (the metal plate is on the front, not on the back as with the Stauffer guitars).

The 4 or 5 metal strings run over a loose wooden bridge to pins at the edge of the body, with some metal covering. Usually the first two strings are double.

The tuning is often an octave lower than the bisernica, E A d gg (the lowest 4 strings of a guitar).

Playing the brac is with a plectrum, with very fast passages.

The bugarija is the guitar-like instrument in the tamburitza orchestra, playing harmony/chords like a guitar. The bugarija (also called : kontra) is always guitar-shaped.

The body of the bugarija is made like a guitar, with the top half (or an area around the round sound hole) inlayed with a different (darker) wood. The fretboard is flush with the front. The back of the neck is varnished in a lighter colour than the rest of the instrument.
The flat tuning head often had a sideways scroll (like Fender), with metal encased tuning machines on a row on the left side. Others may have a more symmetrical shape with tuning machines from behind.

The 4 or 5 metal strings run over a loose wooden bridge to pins at the edge of the body, with some metal (or leather) covering. Often the first two strings are double.

The tuning is usually in open g : G B d gg.

Playing is strumming with a plectrum.

Notice that a small sargija in Bosnia is also called bugarija (see Europe south).

The celo (or celovic) is the guitar-like bass instrument in the tamburitza orchestra, playing bass lines/counter melodies. The celo is always guitar-shaped.

The body is made like a big guitar (or in fact similar to the bugarija), with the top half (or an area around the sound hole) in a different wood. Often it has a normal, round soundhole, but some may have f-holes. The neck ends usually in a half-open tuning head, with a violin-like scroll. It has 2 large bass tuning machines on each side. Or it may be a flat tuning head with a sideways scroll (like Fender), and metal encased tuning machines.

(picture from website)

The 4 thick metal strings run over a loose wooden bridge to pins at the edge of the body, with often some covering. Tuning could be : E A d g.

Playing the celo is bass runs with a thick plectrum.

The celo may also be played as solo instrument. Then it will be called a celo tamburasko, to differenciate it from the celo of the violin-family.

The berda (or tamburaski bas) is the string bass of the tamburitza orchestra.

Although some berda may have a guitar-shaped body, most berda look quite similar to the normal western standing bass. However the berda is different : the body may have a flat front and a flat back instead of carved. The top of the front is made of different wood. The neck is flat, and the fretboard level with the front; it also has (metal) frets. It has a large violin-like scroll at the end of the tuninghead.

The 4 thick metal strings run over a loose bridge to a pin at the end of the body.

The berda is normally plucked with the hand, or with a thick leather plectrum.

berda with guitar-shaped body (picture from Njuskalo.hr)