South East Asia

For the area of South East Asia we regard here the countries of Cambodia, Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia and Philippines.

For Vietnam see page Far East.

For Oceania (Hawaii and Tahiti) see page North America.

Note that Australia does not have any special ethnic plucked instruments.

The jakhay is an instrument that is also used in other countries of South East Asia. Alternative spellings are jakae or jakhae. In Cambodia it is usually called takhe, or charakhe or krapeu. In Burma it is called mi-gyaung. Originally it was carved to resemble a crocodile, now it is more a stylized panhandle.

The jakhay is made from one huge piece of hardwood, carved in the right shape and the back/bottom hollowed out. The bottom (the soundboard) is made from a softer wood, and has (roughly drilled) soundholes in it. It has 3 rounded short legs screwed into the soundboard.

The 11 or 12 high frets are made of light coloured hardwood and fixed in a groove, carved in the top. There are 3 long rounded tuning pegs on both sides of the open peghead. The entire instrument (except the soundboard) is painted dark brown.

The bridge is made of brass, with a flat and rounded top, to make the 3 nylon strings (especially the lowest, wounded string) buzz, like on Indian instruments.

Playing is by resting the jakhay on the floor, with the player sitting cross-legged behind it. The right hand uses a pen-like plectrum with some decoration on the top, and the left hand presses down the strings behind the frets. The sound is not very pleasing to western ears.

In Thailand they use a similar long plucked instrument as the chapey dan veng in Cambodia : in Thailand it is called grajappi or krajappii or krachappi. There is an old and a new version.
The old style grajappi looks much like the chapey, so see Cambodia.
The new version grajappi is made a bit differently.

The body of the new style grajappi is made by hollowing out a round bit of (heavy) wood, and covering it with a thin wooden front. The round body shape is supposed to be a slice of the bodhi tree or of a pineapple. The soundboard has a large round soundhole (like a guitar), that is often covered with a decorated rosette; formerly made of ivory, now of white plastic.

The neck and long pegbox are made from one piece of wood and glued to the body wiith a dovel join. The pegbox extents in a very long (flat) curve to the back; this bit can be taken off, and is highly decorated with dark wood and white (ivory looking) plastic. The 13 frets (in a regular seven-to-an-octave scale) are pieces of white plastic, glued to the flat front of the neck.

The pegs (two on both sides of the open pegbox) are long and round, with decorated "handles" attached to them. There are two courses of double nylon strings, which runs from a high decorated (plastic) nut over a rather large loose bridge to a string holder fixed to the bottom of the body. This stringholder is covered by a piece of decorated white plastic.

The strings are probably tuned : FF BB.

Playing the grajappi is with a plectrum, mainly to accompany singing.

The sueng (also spelled sung, or soung or serng or seung) is a plucked instrument that vaguely resembles the yueh qin ("moon guitar") from China.

The sueung is made from one piece of hardwood, including neck and pegbox. The body is hollowed out and covered with another (round) piece of hardwood, with a small soundhole in the middle.

The neck is rather square. It has high wooden frets attached (nailed) to it, in oriental scale (7 frets to an octave). The pegbox is open and a bit sickle-shaped. The four round friction pegs are two on each side. Modern versions have small guitar machines, with fake wooden tuners.

It has 2 double metal strings (the old ones often made of bicycle brake wire). They run over a loose wooden bridge to pins at the end of the body.

The body of the sueng is decorated with woodcarvings around the edges. A plectrum is fixed with a rope to the end of the body.

This is a nice small folk instrument, based on the Chinese sanxien and the Thai sueng. It is made by the Lisu, one of the hilltribes in North Thailand. It is locally known as tseubeu, or subu or dsyböö. The Akha tribe calls it deuham, and the Lahu calll it sae mu. Internet shops usually call it sung lisu. It is made in several sizes, from around 300mm to about 750mm.

The body of a sung lisu is a small round piece of hardwood, like a bowl. The bottom is pierced with holes and has decoration around the edges. The front is covered with skin, like python or monitor lizard. The straight neck is carved from one piece of hardwood which extents to the pegbox. The pegbox bends back in a sharp curl.

It has three round friction pegs : two on the right side and one on the left side of the open pegbox. Three metal strings (of the same thickness) run over a small loose bridge to a wooden pin at the end of the neck, which goes right through the body.

A nice round plectrum is fixed to that pin with a rope.

An apparently rather new type of instrument, used in modern Thai music groups, the phin is a guitar-like instrument, based on the Thai sueng.

The body, neck and tuning head is usually carved from one piece of wood, although some makers use a separate neck. The middle part of the body is cut out (leaving only the thin sides), and covered on both sides with thin wood. The back is flat. The body has either the shape of a teardrop or a spade or a leaf. On the front is a soundhole in a decorative shape. All edges of the body (in fact the thin wood on front and back) are grooved.

The end of the peghead has on the left side a (separately made) sideways extension (fixed with a screw or bolt to the peghead) in a curl, ending in a decorated carving of a dragon head. The open peghead has 3 modern tuning machines - one left, two on the right side. The instrument is often painted.

The fingerboard is almost flush with the front, and has guitar-like metal frets, which follow an irregular scale, using frets 1,2,3,5,7,8,10 and 12 for the first octave. The 3 steel strings run over a loose wooden bridge to a small stringholder, fixed with two screws at the end of the soundboard. The tuning most often used is : e a e'.

The phin is played with a plectrum and the sound is like a simple guitar (often amplified).

It is used in Molam type of music of North-East Thailand, which also uses the reed organ "kaen", a bowed string instrument "saw", a hand drum and a circular panpipe "wode". The phin plays repeated riffs.

phin example : bought via eBay from Isan Instruments, 2013 L=950 B=230 H=40mm scale 560mm

The phin pia (also written : phin phia) is a very old instrument, and is mainly used in North Thailand. Nowadays there is only a very limited number of people able to play it, although recently there is a kind of revival and it is still made.
In Cambodia it is called kse diev, has only one string, but there it is almost vanished.

The phin pia exists mainly of a straight and tapering round piece of wood, with on the thin end of this stick a bended bronze tool to fix the strings to. Usually this has the shape of an elephant head.

Halfway the stick half a gourd (or coconut shell) is fastened, with the open side away from the stick. At the thick end of the stick 2 (or 4) rounded pegs are inserted to tune the strings. The phin pia has 2 (or 4) metal strings, one of them is the melody string - the other(s) are used for drones.

When the phin pia is played the open side of the gourd is held against the players (bare) chest and by moving it up and down the timbre of the tone can be regulated. The thin end of the stick is hold by the right hand. Plucking the strings seems difficult, as you have to play harmonics and open strings with both hands.

The sound of the phin pia is (even for western ears) quite pleasing and sounds oriental. The music is quite simple due to the limitations of the instrument. It was used by young men for courting the girls, but is not often used anymore.

In Cambodia we can find two plucked string instruments : the chapey and the takhe. The takhe is very similar to the Thai jakhay, so see Thailand.

The chapey dan veng (also chapay veng) is a (very) long neck lute. It is the same instrument that is called grajappi in Thailand.

The body is made from a thick piece of wood, hollowed out, with a thin plank on top as soundboard. That body shape is supposed to be a slice of the bodhi tree or of a pineapple. There is no soundhole.

The neck and the long pegbox are made from one piece of wood and glued to the body. The pegbox extents in a very long (flat) curve to the back. The frets are pieces of hardwood glued with some black wax to the neck. The pegs, which are long and round, are on both sides of the open pegbox.

There are two courses of nylon strings, which can be single, or double or only one double. They run to a string holder which also serves as bridge. The strings are tuned F B. Playing is with a plectrum, mainly to accompany singing.

Some instruments are quite crummy made (like the example), but some are very delicately carved and with some bone (or ivory) inlay (see the grajappi from Thailand).

gambus (Johor)

As in most Islamic countries, the Arabian oud is also played in Malaysia and Indonesia. This oud is quite similar to the one used in the Middle East, as it came with Arab workers from Yemen (town of Hadramaut), who carried on their tradition of playing the oud.
This oud is here called gambus (or gambus Hadramaut, or gambus Hadramawt, or gambus Johor, or gambus Arab, or - mainly in Indonesia : gitar gambus - see Indonesia). In Malaysia this gambus is mainly used in the area of Johor, and on Borneo Island (Sabah and Sarawak).
There is also another local lute-like instrument, which is called gambus melayu (see under).

The oud-like gambus is often imported from the Middle East, but quite a few are locally made in Malaysia or Indonesia. Usually they try to imitate the general shape of the imported oud, but others have a few differences. Often the wood used for the front is not pine wood, and certainly not bookmatched.
Some rosettes seem to be made of paper and partly painted gold. On some gambus there is only one central rosette. Some makers make the bridge with an extension with woodcarved decoration.
And although the neck is fretless (like the oud), the gambus sometimes has inlaid "frets" for orientation.

The number of strings may vary, but the tuning and technique of playing the gambus is the same as for the oud (with a long plectrum); here more to accompany arabic singing - often in "orkes gambus".

gambus melayu (skin front)

Besides the oud-like gambus (see above) in Malaysia (especially on Sabah), and on some islands of Indonesia - like Sumatra, Kalimantan and Lombok (see Indonesia) - there is a another type of gambus, which looks quite different. This gambus (gambus Hijaz or gambus melayu or gambus seludang) is closely related to the old qanbus of Yemen and East Africa (see Africa).

This traditional gambus has a (narrow) body, neck and head carved from a single piece of (jackfruit) wood. The body always has a long and large pin-like extention at the bottom (part of the body). The body and neck is hollowed out from the front and the cavity in the neck covered with a thin piece of wood. The body cavity is covered with (goat) skin. In some areas thin wood is used instead of skin (see under). The edge of the skin is glued, but often also nailed down and decorated with a colourful strip of fabric.

The peg head is usually sickle-shaped, and turns back to the front, with some tribal decoration. It often has friction pegs on both sides of the open tuning head.
The gambus has four (or five) double strings of nylon and no frets. The strings run over a loose wooden bridge and are tied to the extension of the body.

This gambus melayu is played with a long plectrum, and used for vocal accompaniment of Zapin music. It has a sound similar to the oud but with a more resonant, almost hollow sound.

For lots more information about all these different types of gambus instruments see : Portfolio.       left : from CD right : from website

gambus melayu (wooden front)

In Malaysia (especially on Sabah) and in Brunei, and on some islands of Indonesia, like Kalimantan and Lombok (see Indonesia) - the gambus melayu is covered with a thin wooden front instead of with skin.

This gambus is made just like the skin covered gambus from one piece of wood, with a hollowed neck and body. The wooden front is less breakable, and it gives a sharper sound. Especially in Brunei the front may be painted with colourfull decorations.

There is nowadays quite a cross-over between the oud-like gambus (johor) and the gambus melayu, so that the gambus Melayu may also be made from staves, and have 6 double strings and a large single rosette - or three. Also the tuninghead may be bent back (like an oud), or with a decorated carving. It may even have tuning machines.
The gambus melayu can always be recognised from the extension at the bottom.

It is played with a long plectrum, and used for vocal accompaniment of Zapin music. It has a sound similar to the oud.

For much more information about all these different types of gambus instruments see : Portfolio.     left : picture from website made-in-sabah

The sape (or sapeh or sapeq or sapek) is one of the largest plucked stringed instruments in the world. It is mainly used on the island of Borneo (half of which is Malaysia : Sabah and Sarawak, and half is Indonesia : Kalimantan; plus the small independent state of Brunei).

The sape is probably made by shipbuilders as the body resembles very much a ship (however the hollowed out bit is on the back...). Maybe that is why this type of instrument is known as "boatlute".
The short neck and square pegbox is also from the same piece of wood. The front is decorated in black and red plakat paint, in traditional Borneo tribal patterns.

Some sape have carved decorations

The number of metal strings may vary from 3 to 5 and can be tuned with round wooden pegs from both sides of the peghead.

Each string is the same gauge and has its own small bamboo bridge, giving each a different string length. They run over a flat bamboo bridge and go through holes to the back of the instrument. Only the first string has (flat bamboo) frets in a diatonic scale.

Playing the sape is quite awkward, as your hand can not really grip the "neck", but more or less have to press on the front of the body. Only the first string is fingered, the others are used as drones (it feels a bit like playing upside-down dulcimer). Only the thumb is used for strumming. The sound is not very loud. The repertoire is about 35 different tunes. left: me trying out a sape in the Sarawak Cultural Village, 2008

This long necked strummed lute is quite rare, and found amongst the Dusunic people of Sabah (the north part of the island Borneo). The instrument looks very similar to the kudyapi boat-lutes of the Palawan from the (nearby) Philippines (see under).

The sundatang is mainly made of jackfruit wood, with two (or 3) brass strings; nowadays steel guitar strings. It is made from one large piece of wood, with the somewhat oval-shaped body hollowed out from the back and covered with a separate wooden "lid".

There are just a few (about 6) high wooden frets on the long neck, near the body (like on the Vietnamese Dan Day). They are only under the first string, and have a small strip of brass as proper fret.The lowest fret is the zero fret, and a small piece of cotton pulls the string down on it. The second string cannot be fretted, and is always played open as a drone.

The sundatang of the KadazanDusun tribe from Penampang district, the Lotud-Dusun tribe (who call it “gagayan”) and those of the Rungus tribe are more widely played than the one of the KadazanDusuns of Tambunan district. This Tambunan sundatang has a small body and a neck over a meter long.

The sundatang can be played for personal entertainment or as a dance accompaniment (in the Tambunan district - the Magarang) and is sometimes played in pairs, as in Tuaran district.

pictures from website Malaysiana

The hasapi (or kecapi) Batak is a small boat lute from the Toba Bataks (Samosir island in Lake Toba), in North Sumatra. They used to be made mainly as woodcarving souvenirs for tourists. Nowadays they are getting popular again, but in a modern version.

The traditional hasapi is made from one single piece of wood, in a slender boat-shape. The body is hollowed from the front, with a small open slit on the back. The front is covered with a thin piece of wood on which a small raised left-over square bit of wood is the bridge.

There are 2 metal strings, which can be tuned by round wooden friction pegs on both sides of the open pegbox. The bridge is a raised square bit of wood left in the middle of the body, to which the strings are fastened.

Usually the top of the pegbox, and the end of the body (which raises high up) are nicely decorated with woodcarvings. If the front is left plain it may be a playable instrument; if it is over-decorated with woodcarvings it is really hard to play.

A modern (playable) hasapi will have only simple decorations, while the neck often has an inlay of a piece of mirror as fretboard. It may have tuning pegs, or modern tuning machines.

Playing is with a plectrum, mainly to accompany singing or flute music.

hasapi (traditional) example : bought on Sumatra 1987 L=840 B=100 H=90mm scale 280mm

The example of a traditional instrument is painted in some dark brown colour, probably with shoe polish.

On my latest visit to Sumatra in 1987 the hasapi seemed not very popular with players, as I found only one boy able to play it, and I could not find any cassettes with pure hasapi music on it.
However recently searching on YouTube and the internet, it seems nowadays young players have taken up the instrument again, but have modernised it first.

The kulcapi is a small boat lute from the Karo Batak people of North Sumatra.

The kulcapi is made from one single piece of wood, in a slender diamond-shape, and much deeper than the hasapi. The body is hollowed out with on the back a diamond-shape soundhole.

The front is covered with a thin piece of wood, with the square bridge left as a block when the front was thinned. The neck has a number (about 7) of metal frets, inlaid in the front in a diatonic scale. Usually the top of the pegbox, and the end of the body (which bends back, not up like the hasapi) are decorated with stylised woodcarvings.
The entire instrument is painted black.

The 2 metal strings can be tuned by round wooden friction pegs on both sides of the pegbox, but modern instruments may have tuning machines (one on each side). The strings are fastened to holes in the raised bridge.

Playing the kulcapi is with a plectrum (often fixed with a rope), mainly to accompany singing.

gambus selodang

This is the gambus melayu (or gambus seludang) used in the province of Riau, on the northeast coast of Sumatra (near Singapore), which has the local name : gambus selodang. It is quite similar to the instruments of Malaysia (see above), but here it always has a skin front.

This traditional gambus has an often rather wide body, with the body, neck and head carved from a single piece of jackfruit wood, including the extention at the bottom. The top half of the hollowed out front is covered with a thin piece of wood (often ending straight - and sometimes rounded, depending on the maker), which usually has some kind of decorative soundhole. The lower half is covered with a (goat) skin, glued to the edge of the body. Often it is also nailed, with a decorative strip of fabric.

The neck is fretless. The peg head is turned back to the front, with some carved tribal decoration. It usually has seven large friction pegs (3 right and 4 left) on the sides of the open tuning head. The example has pegs carved in the shape of star fruit. This gambus selodang has seven metal (guitar)strings in 4 courses (the bass string is single). The strings run over a loose wooden bridge and are fixed to a small metal stringholder, fixed with a bolt to the extention at the end of the body.

It is played with a plectrum, to accompany singing - usually together with two small drums (called "maruas").

For much more information about all the different types of gambus instruments see : Portfolio.

dambus

The dambus is a type of gambus melayu that is used on the island of Bangka, off the northeast coast of Sumatra. It is quite similar to the instruments of Malaysia (see above), but the dambus always has a tuning head carved like the head of a deer.

This traditional dambus has the body, neck and tuninghead carved from a single piece of soft wood (sengon), including the extention at the bottom. The front of the hollowed out body and neck is covered with a thin piece of wood. The soundholes are often in a decorative pattern. Some makers like decorating the front and neck with abstract paintings. Sometimes a strip of fabric is nailed around the edge of the body.

The neck is fretless. The peg head slants to the back, with the end curling to the front with a nicely carved head of a deer. The antlers are usually separately made. It usually has seven friction pegs (4 on the right and 3 on the left) on the sides of the half open tuning head.

The dambus has seven nylon (guitar)strings in 4 courses (the bass string is single). The strings run over a large loose wooden bridge, and are fixed to a round hole in the extention at the end of the body. Tuning could be f cc gg d'd' .

It is played with a plectrum, to accompany singing.

For much more information about all the different types of gambus instruments see : Portfolio.

(gitar) gambus

As in most Islamic countries, the Arabian oud is also played in Indonesia and Malaysia (see also above). This oud is quite similar to the oud used in the Middle East, as it came with Arab workers from Yemen (town of Hadramaut), who carried on their tradition of playing the oud. In Indonesia this oud is often called : gitar gambus and mainly used on Sumatra and Java.

Often this is an oud imported from the Middle East, or locally made in the style of the Middle Eastern ouds. Although the general shape of those is similar to the imported oud (maybe a bit wider), there are often a few differences. Usually the wood used for the front is not pine wood, and certainly not bookmatched. The rosettes are often less complicated. See the gambus johor under Malaysia. Another style gambus which is also made locally is more like a mandolin : with a raised fretboard, a loose bridge, a metal stringholder, and 3 quite simple soundholes.

picture from CD Smithsonian Folkway :Music of Indonesia - 11

Although the neck is always fretless (like the oud), sometimes the gitar gambus has painted or inlay "frets".
The tuninghead usually bends back (like on the arabic ouds), but sometimes it is more straight (guitar-like). Also the friction pegs may be replaced by machine tuners.

The tuning and technique of playing the gitar gambus is the same as for the oud (with a long plectrum), but here more to accompany arabic singing - often in "orkes gambus".

kecapi dayak

The island of Borneo is devided between Malaysia (Sabah and Sarawak) and Indonesia (Kalimantan); plus the small independent state of Brunei. In Kalimantan you can find the large sape (see Malaysia), but there is also a smaller plucked instrument in use : the kecapi dayak (or kecapi Borneo or kecapi Kalimantan or kecapi Kalteng), which resembles a sape but has a long fretless neck.

The body and first part of the neck of the kecapi dayak are carved from one piece of wood (or joined pieces of wood), with a long slender body (like a small sape). The back is round (like a half-cilinder). The body is hollowed out from the front, and covered with a thin piece of wood - which also covers the slightly hollowed neck. The end of the body is often a bit smaller half circle and sticks out.

The fretless neck is straight and long, with the top half (with the tuning head) usually joined halfway with a V-join to the body. The head often has a (carved) decoration of a hornbill bird, or some tribal carving. Usually there are 3 strings, which can be tuned with friction pegs - or nowadays with tuning machines. The 3 nylon strings (all of the same thickness) run over a loose wooden bridge, and are fixed to small holes in the end of the body.

Many kecapi dayak are painted in bright colours, others are just varnished and have light hammered patterns on the front, with tribal decorations (similar to the sape).

The kecapi dayak is played with a plectrum, mainly to accompany singing.   An old kecapi dayak in Sarawak Museum

Note that some sape can be smaller than some large kecapi - the main difference is the long neck and the lack of frets on the kecapi !

gambus panting

Another plucked instrument found in Kalimantan (Borneo Island) is the gambus panting - also a type of gambus melayu. It is quite similar to the instruments of Malaysia (see above). The shape is not very fixed, as there are bodies with a wooden front and others with a skin front. Also the head with the tuning pegs may have different shapes, sometimes with elaborate wood carvings, and even facing sideways.

The traditional gambus panting has the body, neck and tuninghead carved from a single piece of wood, including the extention at the bottom. The front of the hollowed out body and neck is covered with a thin piece of wood (or sometimes skin for the lower part). The soundholes in the wooden front are often in a decorative pattern.

The neck is fretless. The peg head slants to the back, with the end curling to the front (like the gambus selodang). It has 8 friction pegs (4 on each side) on the sides of the open tuning head. Some makers put the pegs on a row on the right side (4 from the back, 4 from the front), with fancy woodcarvings.

gambus panting with skin front and sideways tuning head (from Pancar IX Music)

The gambus panting has 8 nylon (guitar)strings in 4 courses. The strings run over a loose wooden bridge, and are fixed to holes in the extention at the end of the body. Tuning could be ff cc gg d'd' .

The gambus panting is played with a plectrum, and used in a small orchestra (also called "panting") to accompany singing : "musik panting" and in Panting Banjar music.

For much more information about all the different types of gambus instruments see : Portfolio.

gambus lombok

This is a special gambus from the island Lombok used for "cilokaq" music from the area of Sakra. Also called gambo.

This large gambus is entirely carved from one piece of wood, with a small soundhole on the back of the body. The front of the cavity of the body is covered with a thick wooden panel (more than 1cm), with a sound hole in it (often not round).
The front of body and neck is often painted with a mixture of colours. The back is usually painted in one colour.

The peghead is often highly decorated - like in the shape of a head of a horse or a monster, carved from the same piece of wood. This carving may be painted too. The gambus has 7 nylon strings, tuned by friction pegs on both sides of the open tuning head : 4 on the right side, 3 on the left.

The strings run over a large loose wooden bridge to 4 holes in the extension at the bottom of the body, and tied to a small stick.

This gambus is usually played with a plectrum, to accompany singing in a "cilokaq" ensemble.

For more information about gambus lutes from Lombok, see : Portfolio06.

kecapi makassar (Sulawesi)

This is a special boat lute from the island Sulawesi (formerly : Celebes). It is called kecapi [pronounced "kechapi"] makassar, but also : kecapi bugis, kacaping or katapi. A quite similar, but wider instrument is found on Sumba, called jungga (see under).

The kecapi makassar is traditionally made from one piece of wood, with a cavity on the back. This is covered with a separate wooden panel, with several round sound holes in it. Modern kecapi may be made from separate pieces of wood, glued together.

The peghead has usually a highly decorated panel, also carved from the same piece of wood. Nowadays on modern kecapi these panels are made from separate wood, and often left plain.

kecapi makassar example : bought from TabubuEthnicMusicShop, 2014
L=940mm B=90 H=70mm scale 440mm

The kecapi has two metal strings, tuned by small friction pegs. The strings are pressed down on a row of 5 or 6 high finger posts, carved integrally from the neck and soundboard. The bridge is a similar high post. Modern ones have a small piece of brass on each post as a "fret".

It is strummed with a long thin plectrum, for solo music or to accompany songs.

	above : A side view of a kecapi, with the five high fingerpost, the bridge pole (right) and the elaborate decorated panels on both ends, everything carved from one piece of wood. (picture from eBay).
	left : Most information about this instrument (including this picture) comes from the CD South Sulawesi Strings, Smithsonian Folkways.

jungga

This is the two-stringed jungga from the island of Sumba. It looks quite similar to the kacapi from Sulawesi, only not so narrow.
On Timor a similar instrument is used, called ketadu mara.
Note that on Sumba there is also another (guitar-like) jungga (with 4 strings) - see under : bijol.

The body and neck (and all the rest) of this jungga is carved from one piece of wood. The body is wider than the kacapi from Sulawesi. The cavity on the back is closed (with glue and nails) with a separate piece of wood, with a few small soundholes in it.

Just like the kacapi from Sulawesi, it has 5 or 6 high (square) finger posts that serve as frets. The bridge is a high pole on the front, left during carving.

benyol

On the island Flores they use a small instrument called a benyol, or benyol maumere.

The benyol looks like a large ukulele (a bit like a cak or cuk - see under), but seems less professionally made. The body can be in the shape of a ukulele, but often it is made round. Both types have a round open soundhole.

The neck is fretless, and flush with the front. It has a flat tuning head, usually with guitar machine tuners.

The 4 nylon strings run over a loose bridge to some pins at the end of the body. The tuning is not clear.

bijol

On Timor island they use a four-stringed, locally made guitar. The general name is bijol, but it has also several different local names, like bijola, benyol, leku, leko boko, letes, pisu, kasi, raraun, sbo biol makosu, or juk timor etc.

The bijol is completely carved from one piece of hard wood, with only the body hollowed out. The body can be oval shaped, round or in the shape of a small guitar.
Note that the body lacks the extention at the bottom of the body that is the hallmark of the gambus-type instruments.

The front is covered (glued and nailed) with a thin piece of similar hard wood. Often the bridge is part of that piece of wood - so not glued on it. Usually it has a small round soundhole on the front, with sometimes some additional small holes in the front and the sides. The neck is usually fretless.

The tuning head is flat, with four friction pegs from the back. The four nylon fishline strings (all of similar thickness) run to the bridge on the front and are tied to a small wood strip at the back of it. Some instruments may have a loose bridge and then the strings are fixed to a stringholder at the bottom of the body. The instrument is left unvarnished and has no decoration.

It is played with a plectrum and strummed to accompany singing, or played in combination with the local fiddle : heo. On Sumba is a similar looking 4-string homemade guitar, called jungga (or djungga). Similar instruments can also be found on Sumbawa and Flores. example right : jungga from Folkways CD - Music of Indonesia 20

keroncong guitar / cak / cuk

The keroncong guitar is a small ukulele-type guitar from Java island, mainly used in Keroncong music (pronounced "kron-tjong"), which has some Portuguese influence (from the late 19th century).

Originally the keroncong guitar was a small slender guitar (probably much like a ukulele - and related to the Portuguese cavaquinho, or maybe the Spanish guitarrico). It had 4 or 5 strings, and was played in the Keroncong orchestra in combination with a small banjo. However, these two instruments are now completely replaced by a set of two special kind of ukuleles : the cak and the cuk. One instrument with 4 thin steel strings is called the cak (pronounced “tjuck” - originally the small banjo). It has lots of tiny holes in the front as soundhole - either in a circle or in a kind of square or triangle. The 3th course is double, and the tuning could be : d"d" g' b'. The other instrument, called the cuk (pronounced “tjook”), has 3 (thick) nylon strings and usually a normal single round soundhole. Tuning could be quite low : g' b e'.
	cak and cuk example : handmade by Gitar-Media Yohanes Supriyanto, Indonesia, 2010
	cak : L=580 B=195 H=35 scale 380mm cuk : L=585 B=220 H=60 scale 380mm

The cak and the cuk are the same size as a concert ukulele. Interestingly these instruments are not built like a small guitar, but the body is carved from one piece of (mahogany) wood. Sometimes only the sides of the body are carved, with a separate back. Other makers carve the entire instrument (!) from one block of mahogany. The body of the cak is much thinner, to give it a sharper sound.

Both instruments have a raised fingerboard with metal frets. The tuninghead is always flat, with machine tuners from behind. The strings run over a loose bridge to a mandolin-like stringholder. The body and neck are varnished in colour, the soundboard is varnished or painted (sun-burst).

The cak is played in 4-beat, with the off-beat strums accentuated; the cuk plays usually arpeggios. Together the cak and cuk form a set with interlocking strums, that gives Keroncong music its characteristic rhythmic sound.

The other instruments used in traditional Keroncong (or Kroncong or Krontjong) music are usually the gitar tunggal - (the guitar of local or of western manufacture), the violin, the flute and often a (plucked) cello and a (plucked) contra bass. However, Keroncong music can also be performed using modern instruments like electric guitars, electronic keyboards and a drumkit. This music is also very popular among the Indonesians living in Holland.

The laud, the bandurria and the spanish guitar are the instruments used in Spanish Rondalla music, and as the Spanish ruled the Philippine islands for three centuries, this type of music became also popular on the Philippines - and even with Philippinos now living in the USA.
See more information on the website of Jayars or Upafrondalla.

The Philippine instruments look quite similar to the Spanish bandurria and laud (see Europe west), although the number of strings has increased. From 12 strings in 6x2 courses in Spain, to 14 strings in 6 courses in the Philippines : 6th single, 5th and 4th double, 3th, 2nd and 1st three double.

The bandurria (sometimes spelt : banduria, or called banduria guitar) is made like a flat back mandolin. The soundhole is usually round like on a guitar. The tuning head is made like a slotted guitar-head, or flat, with machines from behind - seven on each side. It has a raised fingerboard.

The 14 metal strings run over a loose narrow wooden bridge to a mandolin-like stringfastener at the edge of the body. The tuning of this bandurria would be in : f# bb e'e' a'a'a' d"d"d" g"g"g".

Playing the bandurria is with a plectrum, often with a mandolin-like tremolo.

The Philippine instruments like the laud and the bandurria used in the Rondalla music look quite similar to the original Spanish banduria and laud (see Europe west).

The bodyshape of the laud of the Philippines resembles often the flat back Philippine bandurria, but with a longer neck, and usually with f-holes instead of a round soundhole. It has a raised fingerboard. The tuning of a laud would be one octave lower than of the bandurria : F# BB ee aaa d'd'd' g'g'g'. Playing the laud is with a plectrum, often with a mandolin-like tremolo.
	body with f-holes (picture from Taguig)

The laud, the bandurria and the spanish guitar are the instruments used in Philippine Rondalla music, with sometimes another instrument : the octavina.

The octavina is a special Philippine instrument : it is a guitar-shaped laud, so it has 14 metal strings in 6 courses : 6th single, 5th and 4th double, 3th, 2nd and 1st three double.
The tuning would be like the laud, so one octave lower than the bandurria :
F# BB ee aaa d'd'd' g'g'g'

The octavina is a bit smaller than a guitar, but the construction is the same. The 14 strings run (like on the laud) over a loose wooden bridge to a mandolin-like stringfastener at the edge of the body.

Playing the octavina is with a plectrum, often with a mandolin-like tremolo.

It is not very clear where the name octavina arrived from - as the name is also used for a small spinet (plucked 17th century keyboard). However, in Spain used to be a small guitar-like bandurria instrument with 6 double strings, called octavilla; very likely that is the origin of the name.

The black colour of the front of the example is just painted on; others were red or plain.

On the Philippines the long boat-lute with two strings is still quite popular in some areas. It exists under many different names, although they all look quite similar : kudlung, fagelung, hegalong, hagelung, kudyapi, kutyapi, kusyapi, ketiyapi, etc. It is mainly called kudlung in the south and kudyapi in the north. For the kudyapi used by the Palawan tribe see under.

Like all other boat-lutes, the entire instrument (with all additions, except tuning pegs and frets) is carved from one piece of (soft)wood, with the resonator chamber carved from the back, and covered with a thin wooden board, sometimes with a soundhole in it. The sides of the body and neck form a long flowing bulge. The front and the back are flat. The length of the instrument can be from about 1 to even 2 meters. Some instruments are highly decorated and painted.

The two metal strings are tuned with two tuning pegs on both sides of the pegbox. The bridge (which is also the stringholder) is a raised block of wood on the front. The strings run through small holes to the tuning pegs. The frets are pieces of wood, glued to the neck with black wax, in a pentatonic scale.

It is usually played with a small wooden pick, bound to the forefinger. Only the first string is fingered, the second string is only a drone. It is mainly played solo or to accompany singing or dancing.

For lots of information see Brandeis and Kipas.

kudlung example : from website Kipas

The kudyapi boat-lute used by the Palawan tribe looks very similar to the sundatang from Borneo (see Malaysia), but bigger.

Like all other boat-lutes, the entire body and neck is carved from one piece of (hard)wood, with the resonator chamber carved from the back, and covered with a separate thin wooden board (sometimes with some soundholes in it). The body shape is bulging on both sides, with a straight top and bottom. The front and back are flat. The length of the instrument can be from about 1 to far over 2 meters.

The bridge (which is also the stringholder) is a (carved) raised block of wood on the front. The two metal strings are tuned with two (carved) tuning pegs on each side of the pegbox. The tuning head ends in a flat half moon shape.

The frets are small round pieces of wood. They are glued to the neck with dots of black wax, and put in a kind of eastern scale. Notice that the frets are only on the high end of the neck (like the Vietnamese Dan Day), and that only the first string runs over the frets. The lowest fret is used as "nut" for the first string.

The kudyapi is usually played with a small wooden pick, bound to the forefinger. Only the first string is fingered, the second string is just a drone. It is mainly played solo or to accompany singing or dancing.

For lots of information about Philippine boat-lutes see Brandeis and Kipas.

Primitive guitar from the Philippines.

It is made like a normal guitar, with no (or just a few) frets and played like the player thinks it should be played. Usually used by young kids.